List of heads of state of Afghanistan
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The palace of the emir in 1839 |
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This article lists the heads of state of Afghanistan since the foundation of the first modern Afghan state, the Hotak Empire, in 1709.
History
[edit]The Hotak Empire was formed after a successful uprising led by Mirwais Hotak and other Afghan tribal chiefs from the Kandahar region against Mughal and Safavid Persian rule.[1][2][3]
After a long series of wars, the Hotak Empire was eventually replaced by the Durrani Afghan Empire, founded by Ahmad Shah Durrani in 1747.[4][5]
After the collapse of the Durrani Empire in 1823, the Barakzai dynasty founded the Emirate of Kabul, later known as the Emirate of Afghanistan. The Durrani dynasty regained power in 1839, during the First Anglo-Afghan War, when former ruler Shah Shujah Durrani seized the throne under the British auspices. Shah Shujah was assassinated in 1842, following the British retreat. Afterwards the Barakzai dynasty regained power, eventually transformed the Emirate into the Kingdom of Afghanistan in 1926, and ruled the country (with an interruption in 1929) until the last king, Mohammad Zahir Shah, was deposed in the 1973 coup d'état, led by his first cousin Mohammad Daoud Khan. Despite being part of the Barakzai dynasty, Daoud Khan departed from tradition and did not proclaim himself Shah, instead abolished the monarchy and established the Republic of Afghanistan, with himself as President.[6][7] The Republic lasted until the PDPA–led Saur Revolution in 1978.[8]
Since 1978, Afghanistan has been in a state of continuous internal conflict and foreign interventions.[9][10]
President Hamid Karzai became the first ever democratically elected head of state of Afghanistan on 7 December 2004. His successor, Ashraf Ghani, was in power from 29 September 2014 to 15 August 2021, when he fled the country as Kabul fell to the Taliban following its 2021 offensive.[11]
Upon its recapture of Kabul, the Taliban reinstated the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan, and its supreme leader since 2016, Islamic scholar Hibatullah Akhundzada, de facto succeeded Ghani as head of state.[12]
List of heads of state
[edit](Dates in italics indicate de facto continuation of office)
Monarchs
[edit]Monarch of Afghanistan | |
---|---|
Details | |
Style | His Majesty |
First monarch | Mirwais Hotak (Emir) |
Last monarch | Mohammad Zahir Shah (King) |
Formation | 1709 |
Abolition | 17 July 1973 |
Residence | Kabul:
|
Appointer | Hereditary |
Pretender(s) | Prince Muhammad Zahir Khan |
Hotak Empire (1709–1738)
Name | Lifespan | Reign start | Reign end | Notes | Family | Image |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mirwais Hotak
| 1673–1715 | 1709 | 1715 | Established the Hotak dynasty in Kandahar. | Hotak | |
Abdul Aziz Hotak | Died 1717 | 1715 | 1717 | Brother of Mirwais Hotak | Hotak | |
Mahmud Hotak | 1697 – 22 April 1725 | 1717 | 22 April 1725 | Son of Mirwais Hotak | Hotak | |
Ashraf Hotak | Died 1730 | 22 April 1725 | 1730 | Nephew of Mirwais Hotak | Hotak | |
Hussain Hotak | Died 1738 | 1730 | 24 March 1738 (deposed) | Son of Mirwais Hotak Deposed by Nader Shah in Siege of Kandahar | Hotak |
Durrani Empire (1747–1823)
Name | Lifespan | Reign start | Reign end | Notes | Family | Image |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Ahmad Shah Durrani
| 1720/1722 – 4 June 1772 | June 1747 | 4 June 1772 | Established the Durrani dynasty and the Durrani Empire; Considered founder of modern Afghanistan | Durrani | |
Timur Shah Durrani | December 1746 – 20 May 1793 | November 1772 | 20 May 1793 | Son of Ahmad Shah Durrani Preserved the Durrani Empire following the death of his father after fighting off civil war in 1772, and multiple rebellions | Durrani | |
Zaman Shah Durrani | 1770–1844 | 20 May 1793 | 25 July 1801 (deposed) | Son of Timur Shah Durrani Engaged in civil war with his brothers after the death of his father, later being deposed | Durrani | |
Mahmud Shah Durrani (1st reign)
| 1769 – 18 April 1829 | 25 July 1801 | 13 July 1803 (deposed) | Son of Timur Shah Durrani Engaged in civil war with his brothers after the death of his father, later being deposed | Durrani | |
Shah Shujah Durrani (1st reign)
| 4 November 1785 – 5 April 1842 | 13 July 1803 | 3 May 1809 (deposed) | Son of Timur Shah Durrani Engaged in civil war with his brothers after the death of his father, later being deposed, and making multiple attempts to reclaim his throne | Durrani | |
Mahmud Shah Durrani (2nd reign)
| 1769 – 18 April 1829 | 3 May 1809 | 1818 (deposed) | Son of Timur Shah Durrani Exiled to Herat following his deposition during his second reign | Durrani | |
Ali Shah Durrani | Died 1818/1819 | 1818 | 1819 (deposed) | Son of Timur Shah Durrani | Durrani | |
Ayub Shah Durrani | Died 1 October 1837 | 1819 | 1823 (deposed) | Son of Timur Shah Durrani | Durrani |
Emirate of Kabul / Emirate of Afghanistan (1823–1926)
Name | Lifespan | Reign start | Reign end | Notes | Family | Image |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Sultan Mohammad Khan
| 1792–1834 | 1823 | 1826 (deposed) | First ruler of the Barakzai dynasty; Son of Sardar Payendah Khan, brother of Dost Mohammad Khan | Barakzai | |
Dost Mohammad Khan (1st reign)
| 23 December 1792 – 9 June 1863 | Summer 1826 | 6 August 1839 (deposed) | Son of Sardar Payendah Khan Forged campaigns to re-unite Afghanistan which was divided due to the civil wars between the sons of Timur Shah Durrani. Reign disputed from 1839–1842 by Shah Shujah Durrani in the First Anglo-Afghan War | Barakzai | |
Shah Shujah Durrani (2nd reign)
| 4 November 1785 – 5 April 1842 | 7 August 1839 | 5 April 1842 | Son of Timur Shah Durrani Returned to the throne with the help of the British in the First Anglo-Afghan War, murdered in the aftermath of the 1842 retreat from Kabul | Durrani | |
Akbar Khan
| 1816–1847 | May 1842 | 1843 | Son of Dost Mohammad Khan | Barakzai | |
Dost Mohammad Khan (2nd reign)
| 23 December 1792 – 9 June 1863 | 1843 | 9 June 1863 | Son of Sardar Payendah Khan Returned to the throne after the British and Shah Shuja were defeated in the First Anglo-Afghan War. Coined the term "Afghanistan" after an alliance with the British. Went on to defeat the remaining powers inside Afghanistan[note 1], reunifying the country after a brutal civil war lasting 70 years from 1793–1863 by the time of his death | Barakzai | |
Sher Ali Khan (1st reign) | 1825 – 21 February 1879 | 9 June 1863 | May 1866 (deposed) | Son of Dost Mohammad Khan | Barakzai | |
Mohammad Afzal Khan | 1815 – 7 October 1867 | May 1866 | 7 October 1867 | Son of Dost Mohammad Khan | Barakzai | |
Mohammad Azam Khan | 1820–1870 | 7 October 1867 | 21 August 1868 | Son of Dost Mohammad Khan | Barakzai | |
Sher Ali Khan (2nd reign) | 1825 – 21 February 1879 | 9 September 1868 | 21 February 1879 | Son of Dost Mohammad Khan | Barakzai | |
Mohammad Yaqub Khan | 1849 – 15 November 1923 | 21 February 1879 | 12 October 1879 (deposed) | Son of Sher Ali Khan Deposed during the Second Anglo-Afghan War | Barakzai | |
Ayub Khan
| 1857 – 7 April 1914 | 12 October 1879 | 31 May 1880 (deposed) | Son of Sher Ali Khan Defeated in the Battle of Kandahar and exiled at the end of the Second Anglo-Afghan War | Barakzai | |
Abdur Rahman Khan
| 1840/44 – 1 October 1901 | 31 May 1880 | 1 October 1901 | Son of Mohammad Afzal Khan | Barakzai | |
Habibullah Khan | 3 June 1872 – 20 February 1919 | 1 October 1901 | 20 February 1919 | Son of Abdur Rahman Khan | Barakzai | |
Nasrullah Khan | 1874–1920 | 20 February 1919 | 28 February 1919 (deposed) | Son of Abdur Rahman Khan | Barakzai | |
Amanullah Khan | 1 June 1892 – 25 April 1960 | 28 February 1919 | 9 June 1926 | Son of Habibullah Khan | Barakzai |
Kingdom of Afghanistan (1926–1929)
Name | Lifespan | Reign start | Reign end | Notes | Family | Image |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Amanullah Khan | 1 June 1892 – 25 April 1960 | 9 June 1926 | 14 January 1929 (abdicated) | Son of Habibullah Khan | Barakzai | |
Inayatullah Khan | 20 October 1888 – 12 August 1946 | 14 January 1929 | 17 January 1929 (deposed) | Son of Habibullah Khan | Barakzai |
Saqqawist Emirate and the 1928–1929 civil war
Name | Lifespan | Reign start | Reign end | Notes | Family | Image |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Habibullāh Kalakāni
| 19 January 1891 – 3 November 1929 | 17 January 1929 [note 2] | 13 October 1929 | Styled as king and emir [note 3]; contested the throne during the 1928–29 civil war;[18] deposed and executed[19] | Non-dynastic | |
Ali Ahmad Khan | 1883 – 11 July 1929 | 17 January 1929 | 9 February 1929 | Grandson of Dost Mohammad Khan (maternal) Styled as King; rose in opposition to Kalakāni during the 1928–29 civil war; captured and executed | Barakzai | |
Amanullah Khan | 1 June 1892 – 25 April 1960 | March 1929 | 23 May 1929 | Son of Habibullah Khan Former King; returned to Afghanistan to contest the throne during the 1928–29 civil war; eventually retreated back into British India;[20] See also Amanullah loyalism | Barakzai |
Kingdom of Afghanistan (restored; 1929–1973)
Name | Lifespan | Reign start | Reign end | Notes | Family | Image |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mohammad Nadir Shah | 9 April 1883 – 8 November 1933 | 15 October 1929[21] | 8 November 1933 | Great-nephew of Dost Mohammed Khan Assassinated by Abdul Khaliq Hazara[22] | Barakzai | |
Mohammad Zahir Shah
| 15 October 1914 – 23 July 2007 | 8 November 1933 | 17 July 1973 (deposed) | Son of Mohammad Nadir Shah Deposed by first cousin Mohammad Daoud Khan in the 1973 coup d'état[6] | Barakzai |
Local monarchs
[edit]Some rulers tried to take advantage of internal conflicts in Afghanistan to claim the throne. However, their rule was limited only to certain areas.
Name | Lifespan | Reign start | Reign end | Notes | Family | Image |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Jehandad Khan | Died 1914 | May 1912 | May 1912 (deposed) | Styled as Emir; ruled only in Khost during the 1912 rebellion | Non-dynastic | |
Abd-al Karim | 1897 – 18 February 1927 | July 1924 | 30 January 1925 (deposed) | Son of Mohammad Yaqub Khan Styled as Emir; rule limited to the Southern Province during the 1924–1925 rebellion | Barakzai | |
Salemai | c. 1944 | c. 1946 (deposed) | Styled as King; rule limited to the Eastern Province during the 1944–47 tribal revolts | Non-dynastic |
Non-monarchs
[edit]Name | Portrait | Lifespan | Term of office | Political affiliation | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Took office | Left office | Time in office | |||||
Republic of Afghanistan (1973–1978) | |||||||
Mohammad Daoud Khan | 1909–1978 | 17 July 1973 | 28 April 1978 | 4 years, 285 days | Independent (until 1974) | ||
National Revolutionary Party | |||||||
President; Member of the Barakzai dynasty (first cousin of Mohammed Zahir Shah); Assassinated with most of his family during the Saur Revolution;[23] Supposedly killed for refusing to surrender to the new authorities.[24][8][25] | |||||||
Democratic Republic of Afghanistan (1978–1992) | |||||||
Colonel Abdul Qadir |
1944–2014 | 28 April 1978 | 30 April 1978 | 2 days | People's Democratic Party (Khalq faction) | ||
Chairman of the Presidium of the Military Revolutionary Council. | |||||||
Nur Muhammad Taraki | 1917–1979 | 30 April 1978 | 14 September 1979 | 1 year, 137 days | People's Democratic Party (Khalq faction) | ||
Chairman of the Presidium of the Revolutionary Council; Assassinated by orders of Hafizullah Amin. | |||||||
Hafizullah Amin | 1929–1979 | 14 September 1979 | 27 December 1979 | 104 days | People's Democratic Party (Khalq faction) | ||
Chairman of the Presidium of the Revolutionary Council; Assassinated by Soviet special forces during the Operation Storm-333.[26] | |||||||
Babrak Karmal | 1929–1996 | 27 December 1979 | 24 November 1986 | 6 years, 332 days | People's Democratic Party (Parcham faction) | ||
Chairman of the Presidium of the Revolutionary Council; Dismissed. | |||||||
Haji Mohammad Chamkani | 1947–2012 | 24 November 1986 | 30 September 1987 | 310 days | Independent | ||
Chairman of the Presidium of the Revolutionary Council; Appointed as part of the National Reconciliation process. | |||||||
Mohammad Najibullah | 1947–1996 | 30 September 1987 | 16 April 1992 | 4 years, 199 days | People's Democratic Party (Parcham faction) (until 1990) | ||
Homeland Party | |||||||
President (Chairman of the Presidium of the Revolutionary Council until 30 November 1987); Resigned. | |||||||
Abdul Rahim Hatif | 1926–2013 | 16 April 1992 | 28 April 1992 | 12 days | Homeland Party | ||
Acting President; Deposed. | |||||||
Islamic State of Afghanistan (1992–2002) | |||||||
Sibghatullah Mojaddedi | 1926–2019 | 28 April 1992 | 28 June 1992 | 61 days | National Liberation Front of Afghanistan | ||
Acting President; Resigned. | |||||||
Burhanuddin Rabbani | 1940–2011 | 28 June 1992 | 22 December 2001 | 9 years, 177 days | Jamiat-e Islami | ||
President; Fled Kabul following its fall to the Taliban on 27 September 1996;[27] Continued to serve as president in areas controlled by the Northern Alliance during the 1996–2001 Civil War until being fully reinstated following the recapture of Kabul on 13 November 2001; Between 1996 and 2001, the Islamic State remained the internationally recognized government, despite only controlling about 10% of Afghan territory. | |||||||
Hamid Karzai | born 1957 | 22 December 2001 | 13 July 2002 | 203 days | Independent | ||
Chairman of the Afghan Interim Administration; Appointed by the 2001 Bonn Conference.[28] | |||||||
Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan (1996–2001) | |||||||
Mullah Mohammed Omar |
between 1953 and 1966[29] – 2013 | 27 September 1996 | 13 November 2001 | 5 years, 47 days | Taliban | ||
Supreme Leader; Deposed during the fall of Kabul,[30] and went into hiding following the fall of Kandahar on 7 December 2001;[31][32] Continued to claim the position in rebellion during the Taliban insurgency until his death on 23 April 2013; Between 1996 and 2001, the Islamic Emirate never attained widespread international recognition, despite controlling about 90% of Afghan territory. | |||||||
Transitional Islamic State of Afghanistan (2002–2004) | |||||||
Hamid Karzai | born 1957 | 13 July 2002 | 7 December 2004 | 2 years, 147 days | Independent | ||
Transitional President; Appointed by the 2002 loya jirga. | |||||||
Islamic Republic of Afghanistan (2004–2021) | |||||||
Hamid Karzai | born 1957 | 7 December 2004 | 29 September 2014 | 9 years, 296 days | Independent | ||
President; First democratically elected head of state; Elected in 2004 and re-elected in 2009. | |||||||
Ashraf Ghani | born 1949 | 29 September 2014 | 15 August 2021 | 6 years, 320 days | Independent | ||
President; First peaceful transition of power; Elected in 2014 and re-elected in 2019; Deposed during the fall of Kabul. | |||||||
Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan (2021–present) | |||||||
Mullah Mawlawi Hibatullah Akhundzada |
Birth date not known | 15 August 2021[12] | Incumbent | 3 years, 112 days | Taliban | ||
Supreme Leader; Claimed the position in rebellion during the Taliban insurgency from 25 May 2016 until the recapture of Kabul. The Islamic Emirate is currently not internationally recognized, despite controlling all Afghan territory.[33] |
Family tree of monarchs
[edit]Family tree of Afghan monarchs | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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Timeline from 1880
[edit]Standards of heads of state
[edit]-
Standard of the king of Afghanistan, c. 1919–1929
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Standard of the king of Afghanistan, 1931–1973.
-
Standard of the president of Afghanistan, 1974–1978.
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Standard of the president of Afghanistan, 2004–2013.
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Standard of the president of Afghanistan, 2013–2021.
See also
[edit]- President of Afghanistan
- Supreme Leader of Afghanistan
- Prime Minister of Afghanistan
- Deputy Prime Minister of Afghanistan
- Chief Executive (Afghanistan)
- List of Durrani Wazirs
- Politics of Afghanistan
- History of Afghanistan
- List of Pashtun empires and dynasties
- Name of Afghanistan
- Afghan (ethnonym)
Notes
[edit]- ^ Most notably Herat (see Herat campaign of 1862–1863) and Qandahar (see Conquest of Kandahar).
- ^ Most sources list 17 January 1929, the day that Kalakāni captured Kabul, as the date that his reign began.[13][14] However, he had been formally claiming the title of emir since 14 December 1928.[15]
- ^ Kalakāni referred to himself as both "king"[16] and "emir".[17]
- ^ "The late King was always fondly referred to by all Afghans, cutting across ethnic boundaries, as "Baba-e-Millat" or 'Father of the Nation', a position given to him in the country's Constitution promulgated in January 2004, about two years after the collapse of Taliban rule. The title of the 'Father of the Nation' dissolves with his death." "Last King of Afghanistan dies at 92". Archived from the original on 30 September 2007.
References
[edit]- ^ "An Outline Of The History Of Persia During The Last Two Centuries (A.D. 1722-1922)". Edward Granville Browne. London: Packard Humanities Institute. p. 29. Retrieved 24 September 2010.
- ^ Otfinoski, Steven (2004). Afghanistan. Infobase Publishing. p. 7. ISBN 0-8160-5056-2. Retrieved 27 September 2010.
- ^ Malleson, George Bruce (1878). History of Afghanistan, from the Earliest Period to the Outbreak of the War of 1878. London: Elibron.com. p. 227. ISBN 1-4021-7278-8. Retrieved 27 September 2010.
- ^ "Afghanistan". The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. Archived from the original on 26 July 2009. Retrieved 23 October 2010.
Ahmad Shah DURRANI unified the Pashtun tribes and founded Afghanistan in 1747.
- ^ "Last Afghan empire". Louis Dupree, Nancy Hatch Dupree and others. Encyclopædia Britannica Online Version. Retrieved 24 September 2010.
- ^ a b "Afghan King Overthrown; A Republic Is Proclaimed". The New York Times. 18 July 1973. Retrieved 3 May 2020.
- ^ Barfield, Thomas (25 March 2012). Afghanistan: A Cultural and Political History (Princeton Studies in Muslim Politics). Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0691154411.
- ^ a b William Borders (28 April 1978). "Coup Is Reported in Afghanistan". The New York Times. Retrieved 3 August 2021.
- ^ "A Look At Afghanistan's 40 Years Of Crisis — From The Soviet War To Taliban Recapture". NPR. 31 August 2021.
- ^ "Instability in Afghanistan". Global Conflict Tracker. Retrieved 23 April 2023.
- ^ "President Ashraf Ghani flees Afghanistan as Taliban enters Kabul". South China Morning Post. Reuters. 15 August 2021. Retrieved 15 August 2021.
- ^ a b
- Sieff, Kevin (15 August 2021). "The Taliban has retaken control of Afghanistan. Here's what that looked like last time". The Washington Post. Retrieved 28 November 2021.
- Mellen, Ruby (3 September 2021). "The Taliban has decided on its government. Here's who could lead the organization". The Washington Post. Retrieved 28 November 2021.
- Faulkner, Charlie (3 September 2021). "Spiritual leader is Afghanistan's head of state — with bomb suspect set to be PM". The Times. Retrieved 17 January 2022.
- ^ Qassem, Dr Ahmad Shayeq (28 March 2013). Afghanistan's Political Stability: A Dream Unrealised. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. p. 175. ISBN 9781409499428.
- ^ Wazir, Azmatullah Khan (2002). The immediate solution of Afghan crisis. A.K. Wazir. p. 8.
- ^ Muḥammad, Fayz̤; McChesney, R. D. (1999). Kabul under siege: Fayz Muhammad's account of the 1929 Uprising. Markus Wiener Publishers. p. 37. ISBN 9781558761544.
- ^ "ExecutedToday.com » 1929: Habibullah Kalakani, Tajik bandit-king". 1 November 2016. Retrieved 14 November 2019.
- ^ Muḥammad, Fayz̤; Hazārah, Fayz̤ Muḥammad Kātib; Muḥammad, Faiḍ (1999). Kabul Under Siege: Fayz Muhammad's Account of the 1929 Uprising. Markus Wiener Publishers. p. 1. ISBN 978-1-55876-155-1.
- ^ "Rebel Becomes King in Afghanistan". The New York Times. 18 January 1929. Retrieved 3 August 2021.
- ^ "Afghan Usurper Yields to New King". The New York Times. 24 October 1929. Retrieved 3 August 2021.
- ^ "Amanullah Hungry in Flight to India". The New York Times. 26 May 1929. Retrieved 3 August 2021.
- ^ "Nadir Khan is Elected Amir of Afghanistan". The New York Times. 18 October 1929. Retrieved 3 August 2021.
- ^ "King of Afghanistan Is Slain at Kabul; Stable Boy Won Throne by Military Skill". The New York Times. 9 November 1933. Retrieved 3 August 2021.
- ^ "There was, therefore, little to hinder the assault mounted by the rebel 4th Armored Brigade, led by Major Mohammad Aslam Watanjar, who had also been prominent in Daoud's own coup five years before. Watanjar first secured the airport, where the other coup leader, Colonel Abdul Qadir, left by helicopter for the Bagram air base. There he took charge and organized air strikes on the presidential palace, where Daoud and the presidential guard were conducting a desperate defense. Fighting continued the whole day and into the night, when the defenders were finally overwhelmed. Daoud and almost all of his family members, including women and children, died in the fighting. Altogether there were possibly as many as two thousand fatalities, both military and civilian." p. 88 of Ewans, Martin (2002) Afghanistan: A Short History of Its People and Politics HarperCollins, New York, Page 88 ISBN 0-06-050507-9
- ^ "1978: Afghan coup rebels claim victory". 29 April 1978 – via news.bbc.co.uk.
- ^ Ghaus, Abdul Samad (1988). The fall of Afghanistan: an insider's account. Washington: Pergamon-Brassey's Intern. Defense Publ. p. 200. ISBN 978-0-08-034701-1.
- ^ "How Soviet troops stormed Kabul palace". BBC. 27 December 2009. Retrieved 3 August 2021.
- ^ "Afghan Fundamentalists Sweep Into Kabul". The New York Times. 27 September 1996. Retrieved 30 March 2022.
- ^ "Bonn Agreement" (PDF). United Nations Department of Political and Peacebuilding Affairs. 5 December 2001. Retrieved 30 June 2022.
- ^ "Security Council 1988 Committee Amends 105 Entries on Its Sanctions List | Meetings Coverage and Press Releases". www.un.org. Archived from the original on 22 February 2016. Retrieved 8 September 2021.
- ^ David S. Rohde with Dexter Filkins (13 November 2001). "Taliban Troops Abandon Capital Without a Fight". The New York Times. Retrieved 30 March 2022.
- ^ David S. Rohde with Norimitsu Onishi (8 December 2001). "TALIBAN ABANDON LAST STRONGHOLD; OMAR IS NOT FOUND". The New York Times. Retrieved 4 November 2022.
- ^ Dam, Bette (2019). "The Secret Life of Mullah Omar" (PDF). Zomia Center. Retrieved 29 June 2022.
- ^ Trofimov, Yaroslav (13 September 2021). "As Taliban Seek International Acceptance, Countries Seek to Engage—but Stop Short of Recognition". Wall Street Journal. ISSN 0099-9660. Retrieved 20 September 2021.