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List of space programs of the United States

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United States space program
Human spaceflight programs
Robotic spaceflight programs
NASA Astronaut Corps
Spaceports
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National security space
Civil space
Commercial space industry

The United States has developed many space programs since the beginning of the spaceflight era in the mid-20th century. The government runs space programs by three primary agencies: NASA for civil space; the United States Space Force for military space; and the National Reconnaissance Office for intelligence space. These entities have invested significant resources to advance technological approaches to meet objectives. In the late 1980s, commercial interests emerged in the space industry and have expanded dramatically, especially within the last 10 to 15 years.

NASA delivers the most visible elements of the U.S. space program. From crewed space exploration and the Apollo 11 landing on the Moon, to the Space Shuttle, International Space Station, Voyager, the Mars rovers, numerous space telescopes, and the Artemis program, NASA delivers on the civil space exploration mandate. NASA also cooperates with other U.S. civil agencies such as the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) and the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) to deliver space assets supporting the weather and civil remote sensing mandates of those organizations. In 2022, NASA's annual budget was approximately $24 billion.

The Department of Defense delivers the military space programs. In 2019, the U.S. Space Force started as the primary DoD agent for delivery of military space capability.[1] Systems such as the Global Positioning System, which is ubiquitous to users worldwide, was developed and is maintained by the DoD.[2] Missile warning, defense weather, military satellite communications, and space domain awareness also acquire significant annual investment. In 2023, the annual DoD budget request focused on space is $24.5 billion dollars.[3]

The Intelligence Community, through entities that include the National Reconnaissance Office (NRO), invests significant resources in space. Surveillance and reconnaissance are the primary focuses of these entities.

Commercial space activity in the United States was facilitated by the passage of the Commercial Space Launch Act in October 1984.[4][5] Commercial crewed program activity was spurred by the establishment of the $10 million Ansari X Prize in May 1996.

Definition of space flight

[edit]

Space programs of the United States date to the start of the Space Age in the late 1940s and early 1950s. Programs involve both crewed systems and uncrewed satellites, probes and platforms to meet diverse program objectives.

From a definition perspective, the criteria for what constitutes spaceflight vary. In the United States, professional, military, and commercial astronauts who travel above an altitude of 50 miles (80 km) are awarded astronaut wings.[6] The Fédération Aéronautique Internationale defines spaceflight as any flight over 62 miles (100 km).[7] This article follows the US definition of spaceflight. Similarly, for uncrewed missions, systems are required to travel above the same altitude thresholds.

Government-led programs

[edit]

The following summarizes the major space programs where the United States government plays a leadership role in managing program delivery.

Crewed government-led programs

[edit]
Program Purpose Timeline Organization(s) Flights Exemplar mission(s) Refs
X-15 program R&D 1957–1968
13 X-15 Flight 91 [8][9]
Project Mercury R&D 1958–1963 NASA 11 Mercury-Atlas 6 [10][11]
Project Gemini Exploration 1961–1966 NASA 19 Gemini 4 [12]
Project Apollo Exploration 1961–1972 NASA 14 Apollo 11 [13][14]
Manned Orbiting Laboratory Space Operations 1962–1969 US Air Force 1 Test Flight [15]
Space Shuttle program Space Transportation 1972–2011 NASA 134
[16][17]
Skylab program Space Operations 1973–1974 NASA 4 Skylab 2 [18]
Spacelab program Space Operations 1973–1998
16 STS-50 [19]
Apollo–Soyuz Test Project Space Operations 1975
1 APAS-75 Docking System [20]
International Space Station program Space Operations 1984–present
25 years, 352 days in orbit
[21][22]
Constellation program Exploration 2000s–2010 NASA 1 Ares I-X [23]
Journey to Mars program Exploration 2010–2017 NASA 1 Exploration Flight Test-1 [24][25][26]
Lunar Gateway program Exploration 2017–present
0
[27]
Artemis Program Exploration 2017–present
1
[28][29][30]

Uncrewed government-led programs

[edit]
Program Purpose Timeline Organization(s) Flights Exemplar mission(s) Refs
Viking sounding rocket R&D 1949–1957 Naval Research Laboratory 11 Viking 11 (1954)

[31][32]

Project Vanguard R&D 1956–1959 Naval Research Laboratory 3 Vanguard 1 [33]
Project Farside R&D 1957 AFOSR 6

[34]

Explorers Program Exploration 1958–present
91
[35][36]
Pioneer program Exploration 1958–1992
8
[37]
KH-1 to KH-6 Corona Reconnaissance 1959–1972
142 Discoverer 1 [38]
Samos Reconnaissance 1960–1962 US Air Force 7 Samos 6 [39]
Television Infrared Observation Satellite Weather 1960–1968
10 TIROS-8 [40][41]
Transit Navigation 1960–1988
36 Transit 3B [42]
Ranger program Exploration 1961–1965 NASA 4 Ranger 7 [43][44]
Strategic missile warning programs Surveillance 1960–present US Space Force 39
[45][46]
Orbiting Solar Observatory Heliophysics 1962–1975 NASA 8 OSO 3 [47]
Mariner program Exploration 1962–1973 NASA 7 Mariner 6 and 7 [48]
Centaur upper stage program Space Transportation 1962–2003
91
[49][50]
Environmental Research Satellite Technology 1962–1971 US Air Force 33 ERS 5 [51]
Defense Meteorological Satellite Program (DMSP) Weather 1962–present
39 [52]
Lunar Orbiter program Exploration 1963–1967 NASA 5 Lunar Orbiter 3 [53]
KH-7 Gambit Reconnaissance 1963–1967
38 [54][55][56]
Project Vela Nuclear test detection 1963–1970
12
[57]
Nimbus program Weather 1964–1978 NASA 6 Nimbus 1 [58]
National Geodetic Satellite Program Geodesy 1964–1971 NASA 6
[59]
Electronic & Geodetic Ranging Satellite (EGRS) Navigation 1964–1970
5 EGRS 1 [60]
Space Experiment Support Program R&D 1965–1971
6 SOLRAD [61]
Orbiting Vehicle Technology 1965–1971 US Air Force 37 OV1-9 [62]
Lincoln Experimental Satellite Communications 1965–1976
8
[63]
Orbiting Astronomical Observatory (OAO) Astronomy 1966–1972
2 Orbiting Astronomical Observatory 3 [64]
KH-8 Gambit 3 Reconnaissance 1966–1984
54 [65][66]
Applications Technology Satellites
  • Communications
  • Navigation
  • Weather
 1966–1979 NASA 6 ATS-3 [67]
Defense Satellite Communications System Communications 1966–present US Air Force 63 DSCS-III [68][69][70]
KH-9 Hexagon Reconnaissance 1971–1984
19 [71]
Space Test Program R&D 1971–present
251 C/NOFS [72]
Landsat program Earth Science 1972–present
9 Landsat 9 [73][74]
Earth and Ocean Dynamics Applications Program Geodesy 1972–1978 NASA 6
[75]
NAVSTAR GPS Navigation 1973–present US Air Force (1973–2019)
US Space Force (2019 onward)		 77 GPS Block III [76][77]
Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite (GOES) Weather 1975–present
18
[78]
Strategic planetary missions Exploration 1975–present NASA 8
[79][80][81]
HEAO Program Astrophysics 1977–1979 NASA 3 Einstein Observatory [82]
Polar Operational Environmental Satellites (POES) Weather 1978–present
16
[83][84]
Tracking and Data Relay Satellite System (TDRSS) Communications 1983–present NASA 14
[85]
Milstar Communications 1985–present US Air Force 6 [86]
UHF Follow-On program Communications 1988–present US Navy 11 [87]
Medium Launch Vehicle II (MLV-II) Space Transportation 1988–2004 US Air Force 14
[88]
Discovery program Exploration 1990–present NASA 12
[89]
Great Observatories program Astrophysics 1990–present NASA 4
[90][91]
Mars Exploration Program Exploration 1993–present NASA 8
[92][93]
Global Geospace Science Astrophysics 1994–1996 NASA 2
[94]
Evolved Expendable Launch Vehicle Space Transportation 1998–present US Air Force 106
[95][96]
New Millennium Program Exploration 1996–2017 NASA 5
[97]
Earth System Science Pathfinder (ESSP) Earth Science 1996–present NASA 7
[98]
Earth Observing System Earth Science 1999–present NASA 5
[99][100]
Solar Terrestrial Probes program Astrophysics 2001–2003 NASA 4
[101]
New Frontiers program Exploration 2003–present NASA 3
[102]
Tactical Satellite Program Technology 2003–2013
3 TacSat-2 [103]
University Nanosatellite Program Technology 2004–present Air Force Research Laboratory 20 Cornell University Satellite [104]
X-37B program R&D 2006–present
6 OTV-3 [105][106]
Lunar Precursor Robotic Program Astrophysics 2006–2013 NASA 3
[107]
AEHF Satellite Program Communications 2010–present US Space Force 6 AEHF-1 [108][109]
Living With a Star Heliophysics 2010–present NASA 4
[110]
Wideband Global Satcom Program Communications 2011–present US Space Force 10 WGS-4 [111]
Earth Systematic Missions (ESM) Program Earth Science 2017–present NASA 10
[112]
Origins Program Astrophysics 2021–present NASA 3 JWST [113][114]
Weather System Follow-on Program Space weather 2024–present US Space Force 1 WSF-M1 [115]

Commercial space programs

[edit]

The following summarizes the major space programs where private interests play the leadership role in managing program delivery.

Crewed commercial programs

[edit]
Program Purpose Timeline Organization(s) Flights Exemplar mission(s) Refs
Space Adventures Space tourism 1998–present
7
[116][117]
SpaceShipOne Space tourism 2003–2004 Scaled Composites 3 SpaceShipOne flight 16P [118][119]
SpaceShipTwo Space tourism 2010–present Virgin Galactic 10 Virgin Galactic Unity 22

Galactic 02

[120][121]
Blue Origin New Shepard Space tourism 2015–present Blue Origin 24 Blue Origin NS-18 [122][123]
DearMoon lunar tourism Space tourism 2018–present
0 [124][125]
Axiom Space Space tourism 2020–present
3 Axiom Mission 1

Axiom Mission 2

[126]
Polaris program Space tourism 2021–present
1 Inspiration4 [127][128]
Commercial Crew Program Space transportation 2011–present
7
[129][130]
SpaceX Starship Space Transportation 2012–present SpaceX 0 [131]
Orbital Reef Space Station Space Operations 2021–present Blue Origin 0 [132]

Uncrewed commercial programs

[edit]
Program Purpose Timeline Organization(s) Flights Exemplar mission(s) Refs
Telstar Satellite communications 1962–1995 AT&T 8 Telstar 301 [133]
Comstar Satellite communications 1963–2000 Comsat General Corporation 4 Comstar D-4 [134]
Westar Satellite communications 1975–1988 Western Union 7 Westar 1 [135]
Satcom Satellite communications 1975–2001 RCA Americom 13 GE-1 [136]
SBS Satellite communications 1975–1991 Satellite Business Systems 6 SBS 2 [137]
Galaxy Satellite communications 1983–1997 Hughes Communications 9 Galaxy 1 [138]
Commercial Launch Services (Atlas) Space Transportation
  • 1987–1995
  • 2006–present
  • 9 (1990–93)
  • 11 (1994–95)
 AC-69/Atlas I [139][140]
Iridium Satellite communications 1987–present Iridium Communications 170 Iridium 77 [141]
Globalstar Satellite communications 1991–present Globalstar 84 [142]
Digital Globe Earth Imaging 1992–present Maxar Technologies 8 WorldView-1 [143]
Orbcomm Satellite data messaging 1992–present Orbcomm 62 [144]
International Launch Services (Atlas, Proton) [note 1] Space transportation 1995–2006
100 [145][146]
Sea Launch (Zenit) Space transportation 1995–2014
36 [147]
DirecTV Satellite Television 1995–present DirecTV 19 DirecTV T10 satellite [148]
Dish Network Satellite Television 1996–present DISH Network Corporation 16 EchoStar X [149]
Sirius XM Radio Satellite Radio 1997–present
  • Sirius Satellite Radio (1998–2008)
  • XM Radio (1999–2008)
  • Sirius XM Radio (2008–present)
 13 Sirius FM-5 [150]
SpaceX Launch Services Space transportation 2002–present SpaceX xx [151]
Commercial Orbital Transportation Services Space transportation 2006–2013
3
[152]
United Launch Alliance Commercial Launch Services Space Transportation 2006–present
xx [153]
Commercial Resupply Services Space transportation
  • 2008–2020 (Phase 1)
  • 2016–present (Phase 2)
  • 29 (Phase 1)
  • 9 (Phase 2)
[154]
Planetscope satellite constellation Earth imaging 2010–present Planet Labs 487 List of Flock satellite types [155]
Rocket Lab (Electron)[note 2] Space Transportation 2013–present Rocket Lab 41 List of Electron launches [156]
Starlink Satellite Internet Service 2016–present SpaceX 5,330 [157]
Commercial Lunar Payload Services Space transportation 2018–present
1 Astrobotic Peregrine Lander [158]

See also

[edit]

Explanatory notes

[edit]
  1. ^ Lockheed Martin sold its interest in ILS to Russian entities in 2006 with ILS continuing as an international entity. Atlas commercial sales reverted to Lockheed Martin via the United Launch Alliance joint venture with Boeing.
  2. ^ Rocketlab was founded in New Zealand but made the decision to re-domicile itself to the United States in 2013.

References

[edit]
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